Dengan
pemaparan etnografis ini dapat terlihat hubungan antara dua pasangan dengan
rantai remitan (uang kiriman), hubungan saling ketergantungan yang mendalam, namun
begitu rapuh rentan. Penantian adalah seringkali tidak dihargai dan hanya
dinilai sebagai kerja afektif meskipun penantian pasangan ini memfasilitasi
aliran cinta, uang, dan manusia. Penantian merupakan bagian dari pasangan suami-istri
sebagai –bentuk proyek intersubjektif mereka berdua, untuk meraih masa depan
yang lebih baik, serta merupakan penyusunan strategi yang penting sebagai suatu
strategi bertahan hidup di China semakin kompetitif. Di
sini, masa depan bukan sebagai temporalitas stabil atau keadaan psikologis,
melainkan sebagai seperangkat hal yang ditempa oleh berbagai kemungkinan bahwa pasangan
yang menanti secara aktif memanipulasi keadaan untuk mengatasi rasa
ketidakpastian dan keputusasaan. Kedua
pihak –pengirim dan penerima melakukan pertukaran dan berbagi, tidak hanya
nilai ekonomi, tetapi juga tanggung jawab secara khusus untuk masa depan
keluarga mereka, yang ditopang melalui penangguhan kebersamaan ini. Meskipun
kedua belah pihak mungkin ingin saling membantu dalam membangun masa depan, dan
sosialitas melalui penantian sebagai pekerjaan, ikatan keluarga mereka dapat terjerumus
pada ke kondisi yang genting.
Kondisi
genting melampaui tingkat pribadi. Pengiriman
uang telah memainkan peran yang jelas dalam membuka peluang keluarga migran
untuk memperoleh kemakmuran materi: segalah yang baru, apartemen modern, kemajuan
bisnis sendiri, mobil mahal, dan kemampuan untuk mengirimkan anak-anak mereka ke
Beijing, Shanghai, atau besar, kota-kota kosmopolitan lainnya untuk memperoleh
pendidikan yang lebih baik. Segala
hal yang menjadi penting dalam konteks ini adalah bagaimana mempertahankan kemakmuran,
dan gaya hidup urban. Namun
demikian, banyak migran Cina-Korea telah menyatakan, "Walaupun banyak uang
yang saya telah dapat di Korea, tangan saya masih terasa kosong." China
telah dengan cepat menjadi tempat yang jauh lebih serba mahal dibandingkan awal
1990-an dulu. Kebutuhan
untuk bertahan hidup di Cina menarik migran Cina-Korea kembali ke arena sebagai
Migran; mereka
harus kembali ke Korea untuk bertahan secara ekonomi atas pesat dengan
pembangunan ekonomi di Yanbian. Pekerjaan
Sebagai seorang Penanti terus berlanjut, tidak hanya selalu di bawah tekanan
dari peraturan visa tetapi juga di bawah kewajiban untuk mempertahankan gaya
hidup baru, dan harapan di Cina.
Migran
transnasional Cina-Korea menunjukkan bahwa terdapat distingsi antara mobilitas
dan imobilitas, mencari uang dan menanti uang, sebagai sesuatu yang tidak mudah
dipisahkan. Sebaliknya,
suami ataupun istri yang menanti di rumah merupakan bagian dari migrasi; dengan
tidak adanya penantian, maka tidak ada ikatan intim dan, tidak ada pula sirkulasi moneter. Kembali
ke metode rahasia Tuan Ho, dengan pernyataan teoritisnya atau proposisinya
bahwa "mengelola uang lebih penting daripada mencari uang," Esensi
dari pekerjaan sebagai penanti, terletak pada saling ketergantungan yang rentan
antara (remitan) uang dan cinta, antara penantian dan bekerja. Imobilisasi
ataupun mobilisasi merupakan pekerjaan
afektif yang tidak dibayar dan yang terus mendorong sirkuit migran saat ini; seperti kata orang
Yanbian pergi migrasi, "di mana uang itu berada, di sanalah cinta itu ada."
Referensi:
Adam,
Barbara
1991 Time
and Social Theory. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Ahmed,
Sara
2010 The
Promise of Happiness. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.
Bhabha,
Homi
1994
The Location of Culture. London:
Routledge.
Baldassar,
Loretta, and Laura Merla
2013
“Locating Transnational Care Circulation in Migration and Family Studies.” In Transnational Families, Migration, and the
Circulation of Care: Understanding Mobility and Absence in Family Life,
edited by Loretta Baldassar and Laura Merla, 25–58. London: Routledge.
Boris,
Eileen, and Rhacel Salazar Parren˜as, eds.
2010 Intimate
Labors: Culture, Technologies, and the Politics of Care. Stanford, Calif.:
Stanford
University Press.
Brennan,
Denise
2004
What’s Love Got To Do With It:
Transnational Desires and Sex Tourism in the Dominican Republic. Durham,
N.C.: Duke University Press.
Chu,
Julie
2009
Cosmologies of Credit: Transnational
Mobility and the Politics of Destination in China. Durham, N.C.: Duke
University Press.
Chua,
Jocelyn Lin
2011
“Making Time for the Children: Self-Temporalization and the Cultivation of the
Anti-suicidal Subject in South India.” Cultural
Anthropology 26, no. 1: 112–37.
Clifford,
James
1997
Routes: Travel and Translation in the
Late Twentieth Century. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Constable,
Nicole
2007 Maid
to Order in Hong Kong: Stories of Migrant Workers. 2nd edition. Ithaca,
N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
2009
“The Commodification of Intimacy: Marriage, Sex, and Reproductive Labor.” Annual Review of Anthropology 38: 49–64.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/
annurev.anthro.37.081407.085133.
Crapanzano,
Vincent
1986 Waiting:
The Whites of South Africa. New York: Random House.
Deleuze,
Gilles
1988 Spinoza:
Practical Philosophy. San Francisco: City Lights.
Derrida,
Jacques
1994 Given
Time I: Counterfeit Money. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Ehrenreich,
Barbara, and Arlie Russell Hochschild, eds.
2004 Global
Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy. New York: Holt.
Faier,
Lieba
2007
“Filipina Migrants in Rural Japan and Their Professions of Love.” American Ethnologist 34, no. 1: 148–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/ae.2007.34.1.148.
Felski,
Rita
2000 Doing
Time: Feminist Theory and Postmodern Culture. New York: New York
University
Press.
Freeman,
Caren
2011
Making and Faking Kinships: Marriage and
Labor Migration Between China and South Korea. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell
University Press.
Gasparini,
Giovanni
1994
“On
Waiting.” Time and Society 4, no. 1:
29–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/
0961463X95004001002.
Gregory,
Christopher
1982 Gifts
and Commodities. London: Academic Press.
Gu,
Edward X.
2002
“The State Socialist Welfare System and the Political Economy of Public Housing
Reform in Urban China.” Review of
Research Policy 19, no. 2: 179–211. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-1338.2002.tb00270.x.
Hage,
Ghassan
2009
“Waiting Out the Crisis: On Stuckness and Governmentality.” In Waiting, edited by Ghassan Hage, 97–106.
Carlton, Vic.: University of Melbourne Press.
Han,
Clara
2011
“Symptoms of Another Life: Time, Possibility and Domestic Relations in Chile’s
Credit Economy.” Cultural Anthropology 26,
no. 1: 7–32. http://dx.doi.org/
Hardt,
Michael, and Antonio Negri
2000 Empire.
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Harms,
Erik
2013
“Eviction Time in the New Saigon: Temporalities of Displacement in the Rubble
of Development.” Cultural Anthropology 28,
no. 2: 344–68. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1111/cuan.12007.
Hung,
Eva P. W., and Stephen W. K. Chiu
2003
“The Lost Generation: Life Course Dynamics and Xiagang in China.” Modern
China 29, no. 2: 204–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0097700402250740.
Jeffery,
Craig
2010
“Timepass: Youth, Class, and Time among Unemployed Young Men in India.” American Ethnologist 37, no. 3: 465–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.15481425.2010.01266.x.
Kim,
Hyun Mee
2008
“The Korean Chinese Migration Experience in England: The Case of Residents in
Korea Town.” Korean Anthropology 41,
no. 2: 39–77.
Lazzarato,
Maurizio
1995
“Immaterial
Labor.” In Radical Thought in Italy: A
Potential Politics, edited by Paul Virno and Michael Hardt, 133–50.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Lee, Jinyoung, Hyekyung Lee, and
Hyunmee Kim
2008 The
Effect of Satisfaction on the Visit and Employment System. Korean
Immigration Service.
Lee,
Ching Kwan
2007
Against the Law: Labor Protests in
China’s Rustbelt and Sunbelt. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Lim,
Hyun-Chin, and Suk-Man Hwang
2002
“The Political Economy of South Korean Structural Adjustment: Reality and
Fac¸ade.” African and Asian Studies 1,
no. 2: 87–112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163
/156921002x00086.
Mackenzie,
Peter W.
2002
“Strangers in the City: The Hukou and
Urban Citizenship in China.” Journal of
International Affairs 56, no. 1: 305–19.
Mains,
Daniel
2007
“Neoliberal Times: Progress, Boredom, and Shame among Young Men in Urban
Ethiopia.” American Ethnologist 34,
no. 4: 659–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/
ae.2007.34.4.659.
Marx,
Karl
1998
The Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts
of 1844. Translated by Martin Milligan. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books.
Mauss,
Marcel
2000 The
Gift: The Form and Reason of Exchange in Archaic Societies. New York: W. W.
Norton.
Minnegal,
Monica
2009 “The Time is Right: Waiting, Reciprocity,
and Sociality.” In Waiting, edited by
Ghassan Hage, 89–96. Carlton, Vic.: University of Melbourne Press.
Noh,
Gowoon
2011
“Life on the Border: Korean Chinese Negotiating National Belonging in
Transnational Space.” PhD dissertation, University of California, Davis.
O’Neill,
Bruce
2014
“Cast Aside: Boredom, Downward Mobility, and Homelessness in PostCommunist
Bucharest.” Cultural Anthropology 29,
no. 1: 8–31. http://dx.doi.
Park,
Gwang Sung
2006 “The Movement of Korean Chinese Labor and
Social Change in the Age of
Globalization.”
PhD dissertation, Seoul National University.
Park,
Jung-Sun, and Chang, Paul
2005
“Contention in the Construction of a Global Korean Community: The Case of the
Overseas Korean Act.” Journal of Korean
Studies 10, no. 1: 1–27. http://
www.jstor.org/stable/41490207.
Parren˜as,
Rhacel Salazar
2001
Servants of Globalization: Women,
Migration, and Domestic Work. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
Pun,
Ngai
2005
Made in China: Women Factory Workers in a
Global Work Place. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.
Richard,
Analiese, and Rudnyckyj, Daromir
2009
“Economies of Affect.” Journal of the
Royal Anthropological Institute 15, no. 1: 57 – 77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9655.2008.01530.x.
Rundell,
John
2009
“Temporal Horizons of Modernity and Modalities of Waiting.” In Waiting, edited by Ghassan Hage, 89–96.
Carlton, Vic.: University of Melbourne Press.
Seol,
Dong-Hoon
2002 “Korean Chinese Working in Korea— Are They Overseas Koreans or Foreigners?”
Trend and Perspective, no. 52:
200–23.
Spinoza,
Benedict de
1994 Ethics.
Translated by Edwin Curley. New York: Penguin Classics.
Walder,
Andrew
1986
Communist Neo-Traditionalism: Work and
Authority in Chinese Industry. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Yan,
Hairong
2008
New Masters, New Servants: Migration,
Development, and Women Workers in China. Durham, N.C.: Duke University
Press.
Zhang,
Li
2002
Strangers in the City: Reconfiguration of
Space, Power, and Social Networks within China’s Floating Population.
Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
Zheng,
Tiantian
2009
Red Lights: The Lives of Sex Workers in
Postsocialist China. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Tidak ada komentar:
Posting Komentar